Microplastics in freshwater fishes: Occurrence, impacts and future perspectives

Microplastics (MPs) are small, plastic particles of various shapes, sizes and polymers. Although well studied in marine systems, their roles importance freshwater environments remain uncertain. Nevertheless, the restricted ranges variable traits fishes result communities being important receptors strong bioindicators MP pollution. Here, current knowledge on MPs is synthesized, along with development recommendations for future research sample processing. commonly ingested passively taken up by numerous fishes, ingestion patterns often related to individual (e.g. body size, trophic level) environmental factors local urbanization, habitat features). Controlled exposure studies highlight effects fish physiology, biochemistry behaviour that complex, unpredictable, species-specific nonlinear respect dose–response relationships. Egestion typically rapid effective, although a particular shape and/or size may remain, or translocate across intestinal wall other organs via blood. Regarding studies, there need understand interactions pollution anthropogenic stressors warming, eutrophication), concomitant requirement increase complexity enable impact assessment at population, community ecosystem levels, determine whether consequences processes, such as parasite transmission, where could vector parasites infection susceptibility. This will extent which can be considered major stressor freshwaters this era global change.